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AFM has contributed to ground-breaking research in the investigation of DNA, proteins, and cells in biological studies; structure and component distribution in polymer science; piconewton force interactions and surfactant behavior in colloid science; and physical/ mechanical properties and fabrication variables in the material sciences. Pharmaceutical
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Microscopic evaluation is important for the design and evaluation of a pharmaceutical product after the steps in the drug formulation process. Since atomic force microscopy (AFM) provides the ability to directly investigate surface structure at nanometer-to-subangstrom resolution in ambient and liquid environments, it has been applied to a wide range